Perceptions of Anime in the West

Perceptions of Anime in the West CHAPTER 1 Definition Different words or terms used in this dissertation might not be clear for those who are not familiar with the anime community so I will briefly explain some of the essential terms which will be in the text. 1.1.1 Anime Anime pronounced ah-ne-may is an abbreviation of the word animation. It is used to refer all animation, but it turns out that outside of Japan it has been used to refer to all animation made in Japan (Napier, 2001). Over the years Japanese animation has developed a variety of genre and caters to consumers of all ages. These animations are not simply cartoons aimed to entertain children but also have more serious themes consisting of war, death or controversy (G.Hu, 2010). Anime when viewed shows very strong and clear indications of its Japanese roots (Napier, 2001). 1.1.2 Manga Manga pronounced mahn-ga with a hard g basically means comics in Japanese. Manga can be recognized by the stylized artwork budding from old Japanese art. Regular manga chapters would be in the same physical form of a comic book and because manga is written in Japanese, the comic books are read from right to left opposite to that of western comic books (Brenner, 2007). 1.1.3 Otaku Okada Toshio calls Otakus people with a [highly] evolved sense of sight'(LaMarre, 2009). Otakus are mentioned by Azuma (2001) in her book (originally in Japanese, later translated by Jonathan E. Abel) describing them as individuals who in majority are male in gender, and generally between the age of 18 to 40. Otakus consume, produce and collect Japanese manga and anime obsessively. Their hobby extends to fan merchandise of the anime or manga they watch. Otakus had increased in such a vast number over the years that Azuma (2001) in her book mentions that this has become a culture in Japan and this is not only limited to Japan but a strongly influenced popular culture around the globe. 1.1.4 Cosplay As anime took the world by storm Cosplay followed (Poulos, 2006). Poulos (2006) explained in his book that Cosplay is short for costume and play a hobby practiced by those who are fans of anime. The main meaning of cosplaying is to dress up as a character either from an anime or a manga they like and join a group of people with the same interests and pose for taking pictures also. Cosplaying is closely associated with the Japanese community who base their Cosplay on anime and manga. 1.1.5 Mecha Mecha is short for mechanical and in the context of Japanese popular culture, Mecha is one of the many genres in anime and manga (e.g. Gundam). Anything from an electric shaver to a huge mechanical robot with a pilot inside or even if its externally controlled, is mecha. (Poitras, 2001, p. 35) 1.1.6 Fansubs Generally speaking if a fan makes subtitles for a foreign film or programs it is referred to as a fansub. While looking at the term in a narrower definition it limits the practice to fan subtitling of anime (Leonard, 2005). They would often be subtitled by fans who watch the series and then uploaded to the internet thus making it available for everyone and an anime having no translated subtitles and is in its original form would be identified as raws. 1.1.7 Forum Forums are interactive discussion areas in real time on the internet. The word forums is used in its plural form because areas of it are divided into several topics. The reason its often compared to a bulletin board is that you can post content on forums like using thumbtacks on billboards. This process on forums is called posting (Summey, Dawson, 2006). Forums are in this case used by fans that are members of this specific internet site and share their opinions, talk about popular animes or the ones that was released in the past. They have daily updates and provide links to the latest and popular manga or anime. Members can create a profile with personal information and thus have a more personal interaction with users with the same interests, comment on their topics or create new topics (Schodt, 2007). Anime and manga Before proceeding forward it is also important to establish the connection between anime and manga. They both have a rich and distinct, visual story telling. Both world of anime and manga inspire one another and often create titles related to one another (Brenner, 2007). The connection of anime and manga is much closer to that then that between American comic books and animated cartoons. Almost all animes including T.V series that are aired on different channels or those available on dvds, Original Video Animations (OVA) and theatrical features are mostly based on the manga that is published (Patten, 2004). 1.1.9 ShÃ…?nen/ShÃ…?jo ShÃ…?nen and ShÃ…?jo both are terms used for anime and manga for either the male gender or the female. ShÃ…?nen can be used for those animes or mangas targeted towards teenage boys. For example most ShÃ…?nen mangas made by Osamu Tezuka were dark and in some places he drew scenes of cannibalism. On the other hand ShÃ…?jo the term used for those anime or manga targeted towards younger girls would usually contain feminine traits in them. There are also terms implied on older men and women. Seinen is used for men while Josei is used for women (Power, 2009). 1.3 Background of Anime One of the first Japanese animations or anime was known to have been screened in 1917. All the animes made during this period of time were made with same animation techniques that were used by the rest of the world. Stories were mostly fairytales of both western and Japanese origin mainly because artists were restricted from producing animes with any hint of propaganda and other sensitive issues (Poitras, 2001, p. 16). According to Hu (2010), Japanese animation or anime significantly evolved during the end of World War II. Drazen (2003) states in his book that animation genres soon after were controversial, depicting stories that would show hardships that people came across during the war. One example is an anime by Isao Takahata called Grave of the fireflies, a story based on two children who starved to death near the end of the war. The war made an impact on the initial genre and depicted war in the animations, and some of the changes were so drastic, to the extent that they would either be about fictional battles in Japan or a battle with connection to earth; sometimes maybe in a whole other universe but humans being one of the species in the stories (Drazen, 2003). After the 1940s even most of the domestic films were animated films based on mangas. In the 1950s anime started to evolve by adaptation which started with Toei Animation. Toei animation is a famous animation studio owned by Toei Co. Ltd and its headquarters established in Tokyo, Japan. They did not stick to the genre of military and battle for long, it was then in the 1960s when anime started to generate a vast popularity and various new genre were also introduced. A number of famous titles came to surface which catered to a large variety of age groups. Some famous titles during that time mentioned by Patten (2004, p. 76) are Lupin III, Speed racer and Yamato which are run on some channels even now (these titles are mentioned because they became well known in America simultaneously). Another anime mentioned by Drazen (2003) which made its historic debut was The Mighty Atom better known as Astroboy. This anime character was considered the Mickey Mouse of Japan, his name was atom but it was locally pronounced atomu. Though the 1970s were not very productive, they did make some good animes in the genre of Mecha. Amongst them one was Gatchaman (later changed to G-force when it was aired in America). Another anime premiered during this period was Gundam which again came under the genre of mecha this manga was new as it contained a lot newer elements, some of which included climatic robot battles or robots combing to form another machine (Poitras, 2001, p. 20). During the 1980s, was the time when anime bloomed into the world, which was known as the Golden Age of Anime. Famous Animes came to surface, which are considered to be some of the best animes of all time. There are a number of famous animes that could be mentioned but some of the more famous ones are Robotech. Patten (2004, p. 76) mentions in his book that the creators of Robotech Carl Macek and Jerry Beck of Harmony gold USA and Tatsunoko Production Co., Ltd of Japan played a huge role in not only making a successful anime but also helped in the development of an even larger American audience. Famous animes such as Akira also played a key role in elevating anime in the world, with higher standards of storytelling and animation. This anime as Napier (2001) writes, had identity, structure, apocalypse a very good combination and these key ingredients enabled it to become number one at the box office in Japan. In fact the anime also beat the sci-fi hit Star Wars: Return of the Jedi duri ng the time. Later on in 1995, the anime Ghost in the shell was released and was called the true cyberpunk film. This anime was given full dedication as plans were to air on the big screen after completion. Released by the same studio as Akira, this helped maintain the companys reputation as well. In 1997 when Pokemon was released, it spread to the western states. Pokemon dominated the TV channels during the earlier years of the 21st century. Pokemon changed its name many time over the years and also gained japans second largest domestic box office for an animated film after the release of the new title Pokemon The Movie: Mew Vs. Mew-two. In the later years many other famous titles emerged such as Full metal Alchemist which became a fan favorite during its time. As well as other animated films, Princess Mononoke being one of them, is an adaptation of an old Japanese folk tale turned into an anime. Princess Mononoke made a huge impact in both Japan and America. This also motivated actress Minnie D river and actor Gillian Anderson to voice for characters in the English dubbing. Over the past years, anime has progressed radically, showing a very bright future for Japanese animation in the new century ahead as it creates a haven everywhere for its fans (Boyd Nishimura, 2004). 1.4 Impact of Japanese Animation Japanese animation has left a huge impact on those who have been exposed to it. Many agree with the fact that anime has affected them in a way which motivated them to change themselves. Some changes may include people taking up Japanese as a second language, take a liking to the Japanese cuisine, exploring a different culture and also meeting different people. Napier (2001) in her book looks at Japanese animation and how it has affected the west, America in particular. With the exposure of Japanese animation into America, there have been huge numbers of groups that have emerged. Japanese animations as mentioned before have a vast genre, which enables it to cater to a larger audience. Although Japanese Animations may have left some positive impacts on fans in America, some think otherwise. Jenkins (1992) mentions in his book about media fans and quotes: Fan is derived of the word Fanatic, which has its roots in the Latin word fanaticus. The word fanaticus as Jenkins (1992) wrote in his book was referring to the meaning off or belonging to the temple, a temple servant, a devotee. This lead to many negative implication of the word fan. The main message which Jenkins wanted to put through was contradicting Napier (2001) point of view. People were getting too absorbed. They say fans often become anti-social and absorbed. He also concluded that it sometimes may not be the case as some media fans that he refers to in his book as Textual poachers are fans who look at distinct dimensions and are often helpful in giving intellectual feed back to producers. There have also been many speculations whether Japanese animations have stolen ideas from America or not, some assumptions were made by viewing the themes of Japanese animations (Napier 2001). There may be some minor similarities or influence of Hollywood in Japanese anime, but if one views any Japanese animation it can easily be concluded that this not true. Japanese animations are very distinct and have strong Japanese elements such as, mannerism of characters, the narrative structure and social values. Making it irrelevant to think anime or Japanese animations may be a stolen form (Napier, 2001). CHAPTER 2 2.1 Anime in America During the 1940s anime was more focused towards younger audience, but thats what artists claimed, some of these were censored and often restricted because of propaganda. An example was like the anime Momotaro no Umiwashi released in 1943. Endearing animals were engaged in battle with fleets of battle ships with Americans, reason for this being restricted in some places was because this was a sensitive issue after the Pearl Harbor incident. The biggest indication that this was a propagandistic work was because this was funded by the Ministry of Navy. Such animations obviously did not help gain viewers; on the other hand, progress was made with the animation techniques. (Poitras, 2001). In the 1950s, anime managed to recover and prosper due to the fact that is was able to obtain capital and resources easily. It was then in the 1960s when anime as we know these days started to be released to the audience. One of the most famous manga artists Osumu Tezuka founded the studio Mishi Productions. They released their first animated title Aru Machikadono no Mongatari (Translated: The story of a Street Corner). ). Due to the advancement and the increase of television viewers the potential market of anime increased. It was in 1963 when Mishi Productions began airing its first TV anime Tetsuwan Atom and soon after it was broadcasted by NBC in America. It was redubbed and its title was changed to a more localized name which later on turned world famous AstroBoy (Poitras, 2001). Osamu Tezukas famous series Astro boy was released to the American audience around the same time as its introduction to its Japanese viewers (Clements McCarthy, 2006). Ladd Deneroff (2009) mentioned in their book, the term Anime Tsunami which fits what happened during these years of animes rise in America. Along with some other titles such as voltron and speed Racer. Anime started to emerge on an even larger scale during the period when Robotech was aired which was around the 1980s (Patten, 2004). Some may even say it was a stepping stone for anime in the Western market. It started off around the year of 1985 when it was aired as a TV series by Harmony Gold and ending up to be a huge success, they released more episodes with a total of 65 episodes (Clements McCarth, 2006). During this time anime was well on its way to being a huge part of the marketing decisions being made by the U.S, reason being the serious number of growth of fans. Some video store chains were known to supply r edubbed versions of anime because of the increasing number of viewers (Poitras, 2001). Demographics: Anime has catered to a diverse range of age groups. From 1963 to 1968 famous animes such as Astro boy and Speed Racer were genre of anime clearly targeted towards a younger audience, that was alongside the famous American made cartoon Transformers. The development of anime as an industry and as a fandom has been extraordinary, but it hasnt been smooth sailing. San Diegos Comic Con which was first held in 1970 starting off with just 300 people and in 2004 the number of people recorded were between 75,000 to 87,000. This goes to show the ever increasing fandom for anime (Brown, 2008). Susan J. Napier (2001) writes in her book that amongst the places in America that gave a surprise was an anime club in the University of Texas which had about 300 members. Not all the members were students, majority of the members were from outside the university and only 39.7 percent of those members were students. Austin, Texas was known for its high-tech industry and also for the majority of the locals who were engaged in computer programming. Thus the majority of the fans were engaged in anime very naturally because of their jobs. New York was not to far off, the Big Apple was known to have a large number of respondents as well. The platform anime is viewed on has changed drastically through the years by both technological and economical influences. Amongst the mediums it was television that started things off in the earlier years around the 1960s. In the later years as technology progressed and the arrival of home video players and Video Cassette Recorders (VCR) enabled producers to reach a whole new audience. Before these advancements the only mediums anime could be viewed on were theaters. It was then in the 1990s when the use of Satellite/cable was becoming more common. This was not only a way to reach a bigger audience but also cost effective for the studios which aired the shows, as only one copy of the show was required for it to be aired (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). During these years as the growth of anime had been phenomenal, so had the growth of fans. Conventions were taking place all over America, universities being the main locations for the events. More and more fans lead to more channels on television dedicated to anime. Adult Swim being one of those channels which aired some famous animes like, Schinchiro Watanabes Cowboy Bebop or Masashi Ikedas Inuyasha (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). The most effective source of anime which had a major role in the growth in anime fandom was The Internet. The internet allowed fans to have access to anime at their convenience, only a click away (Napier, 2001). Websites such as animetake ( http://www.animetake.com ) are typical websites which have almost everything an anime fan needs, from free anime fan subbed episodes to forums where they can converse with other anime fans. There were some problems which came to surface which concerned legal issues. An example is of subgroups, Brown (2001) mentioned in his book about anime being translated by anime fans for anime fans. This started off mainly because some genres that were favored by a minority and not subbed because they were not popular, mainly ShÃ…?jo (Genre aimed at teenage girls). Later on as many others started to fansub famous animes, the produces took this on as an advantage to see how the anime will fair in the American market. As this became a hot topic and discussions of the ethics of making fansubs were brought into question there were still those who may have wanted to profit from this, but there was a majority in groups of fansubbers who made clear their principle of not profiting from these copyright violation and making it available for fans at the same cost (Brown, 2001). There were often assumptions about fans being too absorbed into anime. Brown(2001) writes about people who make fansubs for other anime fans and also mentioning a couple who owned Tomodachi Anime Group based in America which is now obsolete, losting an estimate of 10,000 $ pursuing their passion. Does this make them fans or Fanatics? Jenkins (1992) who writes in his book about fans and questioning whether they are fans or fanatics? As some of these individuals practically lock themselves up in their basement and get out of sync with reality or become socially maladjusted. 2.2 Globalization and culture A survey conducted by Held and McGrew (2000: 3) declared that: no singe universally accepted definition of globalization exists. Kearney (1995) says it is social relations that form a connection with other areas across the world which cause changes in local areas because of the events taking place elsewhere and vice versa. Steger (2010) writes that globalization has been traced back in history but was only until recently the public realize the process of globalization. Throughout the years many definitions have been brought forward. One of them by Giddens (1990) defined globalization as As the intensification of the world-wide social relation, which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa (1990, p. 64) There are Scholars who believe consequences from globalization are complex forms of interaction and interdependency (Rantanen, 2005). Rantanen (2005) wrote in his book saying Thompson (1995) focused more on media and culture and also had similar views as Giddens (1990). Thompson (1995) mentioned Globalizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦refers to the growing interconnections of different parts of the world, a process which gives rise to complex forms of interaction and interdependencies (1995, p. 149). Waters (1995) and Robertson (1992) were amongst those who would stress that globalization was experienced through the consciousness, which in other words meant people would experience globalization through their own awareness instead of social relations. Waters (1995) states that globalization is a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding (1995, p. 3). Rantanen (2005) writes in his book that globalization according to theorists is not possible without Media and communication. Along with the progression of globalization the lives of many in Asia and North America have enhanced. Despite the assumptions by media theorists and scholars, universally there is no concrete explanation to define globalization. To conclude the term globalization, this term does not have any solid foundation, because it could mean otherwise depending on the environment. On the other had there are those who are skeptics like Hirst and Thompson (1999) who in their book write about how the possibilities of controlling international economy is hopeless. 2.2.1 Hetrogenization/Homogenization Many Scholars conclude that globalization may result either to heterogenization or homogenization. Mooney and Evans (2007) write in their book about homogenization, saying it basically means things becoming one. There are many environments that could be effected such as political, cultural practices, languages, consumer products, ideologies, media, and all forms of entertainment. There are many mediums and sources which made this possible, internet being one of the most effective. Many scholars who defined globalization would sometimes imply homogenization. Amongst those scholars one was Albrow (1990). In his work he came to the conclusion that the whole population of the world is incorporated as one massive society. Globalization Refers to all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society, global society (Albrow, 1990, p 45). Although Albrow (1990) defined globalization as being homogenized, but there are theorists who contested his vi ews. Lull (2000, p 233) differs that globalization would lead to heterogenization. He believes that no matter what medium it may be, even if its modern technology, with its efficiency to reach a mass audience, it in no way has influenced the population into becoming a single community and it never will (Rantanen, 2005). Rantanen (2005) mentions in his book, people amongst those who criticize heterogenization often object to the strength that is being given to the general public; disregarding the global medias economic power. Neglecting that the large media firms location is in the U.S. and lastly ignoring the fact that there is discrepancy in portions of the audiences access to the media. 2.3 Cultural Imperialism: Anheier and Isar (2007) argue that cultural imperialism is spread through powerful, influential countries that have a strong culture. Anheier and Isar (2007) refer to these areas as core of the world culture systems and then those countries that are poor and are less developed eventually end up absorbing from those that are core of the world culture system. Cultural imperialism is categorized as being homogeneous in the theory brought forward by the writers about cultural imperialism assumes this process as homogeneous. Reason being the mass audience who are exposed to these cultures accept and absorb the other culture of other countries which are mentioned in the book as the core of the world cultural system almost instinctively (Anheier and Isar, 2007). In support, Fejes (1981) assessment in which he, after evaluation of a specific area turned to the issue of media imperialism and its effects on cultures, saying it causes change to the third world countries cultures. From what Feje s (1981) mentioned, we can gather that the media worldwide which are owned by the dominant countries control what the audiences watch. All Shows, News, Advertisements aired by those media groups who dominate, drastically alters most cultural ideals of the third world countries by the output which is hugely generic to the dominant, may it be superiority economically (Tomlinson, 2001) or, as Anheier and Isar(2007) mentioned , those who are core of the Cultural system. Hesmondhalgh and Toynbee (2008) write in their book about the WTO (World Trade Organization) Treaty and taking out one of the 28 agreements from 1994 which was TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement). Some of the countries that were members had to eventually change laws or practices as it was necessary to follow the rules or principles of the organization. The agreement of TRIPS state these steps as necessary for artists in countries who wish to protect their work or their creativity from misuse. In compliance with TRIPS, some countries may have to make major changes in some of their countries polices. Hesmondhalgh and Toynbee (2008) state these developments can be taken as imperialism in the form of culture. However, Sparks (2007) debates aside from the fact that cultural imperialism is used for academic purposes but when it comes to politics, there are problems that arise. Pendakaur (1990, p 167) wrote about a group of workers and some small capitalists who had the aim to gain the national control of the Canadian cinema. On the other hand there were the eminent capitalists who were the current owners of the national theatre chains. They wanted to maintain their current standings and keep in control of their current position (Sparks, 2007). What Pendakaur explains what Sparks mentions in his book about those who are dominant. Though these dominant entities might want to gain control, the majority would desire to maintain the current environment as it is (Sparks, 2007). Then there is also the term reverse flow which Barker (1997) mentions in his book. Among the examples were about reggae music, ethnic food and clothing the acceptance of other cultures in the western countries and making a n impact on their culture (Barker, 1997). Chapter 3: Case Study To evaluate how anime or Japanese animations were perceived by the west specifically America we look at the Anime Robotech which in 1984 was called Macross. the Robotech phenomenon is a curious hybrid of Japanese animation and American ambition'(Clements and McCarthy, 2006). Released in 1985 by the studio Harmony Gold USA and Tatsunoko Production an animated film studio based in Tokyo, Japan. This anime was adapted from three separate Mecha Japanese animes namely Macross, Southern Cross, and Mospeada, reasons being that inorder to be broadcasted they had to have a minimum of 65 episode , thus Harmony Gold formed a co-licensing agreement with these three animes. The brainchild behind the story of Robotech was the writer Carl Macek. Macek edited almost all of the content and changed the dialogue to get the anime tailored to the story of Robotech. The names of some of the characters in Robotech were also altered to appeal to the American and international audience, including the name of the protagonist who in America he was named Rick Hunter while in Japan he was called Hikaru Ichijo. The Basic storyline of the anime Robotech is based in the year 1999. A giant Alien Battle Cruiser crashes on earth which enables the entire human race to unite and work together in case a scenario where the aliens come to retrieve their ship should arise. Ten Years later, reconstruction of the battle spaceship now named the SDF-1 was still underway when the aliens named the Zentraedi invade earth to retrieve their ship. In an attempt to save earth, the SDF-1 fires the Spacefold Drive an untested weapon which transports them into deep space, there the prolonged battle against the Zentraedi takes place. Rick Hunter is the main character of the anime who has a complex relationship with two main female characters, the ships officer Lisa Hayes and a singer Lynn Minmay. Events lead to many tragedies and loss of many main characters (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). 15 years later Rick Hunter along with the SDF-3 carry on their voyage in space but the story changes with the Robotech masters saga as they set off in search of the world of Robotech masters. The Robotech masters on the other hand are well on their way towards earth, were they attack in search of their protoculture factory. The main character of the story is Dana Sterling who is the offspring of the first interspecies marriage. She along with her comrades try to save earth, but eventually a man on the opposing side having unclear motives destroys his own culture to save them (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). The story continues after this second Robotech war and before the third season. Aliens known as the Invid conquer earth but the inhabitants are too worn out from the battles to fight back. A generation later the main character named Scott Bernard with his reinforcements tries to liberate earth. All seems lost when eventually they manage to come into contact with Admiral Rick Hunter and with his space fleet, giving earth a ray of hope (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). Looking at Robotech and its penetration into America, Robotech as mention by Clements and McCarthy (2006) is an American and Japanese hybrid. Macross was brought to the U.S in 1984 then later on released as Robotech in 1985, the name was also changed to Robotech in the same year. Robotech was made from three purely Japanese animes namely Macros, Southern Cross, and Mospeada. These animes were co-licensed by Harmony Gold and then were completely re-edited. The stories and dialogues were completely changed by Carl Macek. There were subtle name change for some characters but there were also some dramatic changes to some of the other names, for example Miss Hayase was changed to Lisa Hayes and the name of the protagonist was also changed from Hikaru Ichijo to Rick Hunter, mainly to appeal to the American and international markets. All these changes made by Harmony Gold show clear signs of cultural imperialism. They took pure Japanese anime, completely changed the story by an American wri ter. There were often arguments about how anime after penetrating America started to spread the Japanese culture and colonize America. One of the reasons is, anime having strong Japanese cultural content. But looking at Robotech, how Harmony Gold took Japanese anime and made it their own, we can clearly see, that is not the case here (Lau, 2003). Another example can be of the famous Anime Mach Go Go Go, originally released in Japan and aired on American TV in 1967 as Speed Racer. It was considerably changed as the writer Peter Fernandez was given the job of toning down the Japanese version to an American version. They started off by changing the name to Speed Racer. They made a point to remove any type of violence or deaths of villains by making revolving stars around their heads to make it more humorous. They changed the names for the characters as well, changing the name of the protagonist Go Mifune to Speed (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). Ther

Critically analyse the ruling of the House of Lords in ‘Howe [1987] 1 AC 417’ that duress is not a defence to murder.

Introduction It will be critically analysed in this study whether the ruling of the House of Lords in ‘Howe [1987] 1 AC 417’ was acceptable and whether the notion that duress is not a defence to murder should continue to apply. Various academic opinion will be analysed and a review as to whether some change ought to be made will be considered. Thus, it will be demonstrated that although duress should not be a complete defence to murder, it should be a partial defence as there are some situations which lead to injustice on the basis that this defence is not available to them.[1] Main Body Duress is a common law defence that seeks to protect individuals that have been forced or compelled to commit a crime. The defence of duress provides an exception to the rule that a person shall be held responsible for any crimes they commit on the basis that they had not done so voluntarily. As the defence is open to abuse, caution needs to be taken by the Courts when allowing the defence to be submitted. Accordingly, restrictions are needed to ensure that the level of threat the defendant has been subjected to is not menial. Hence, as noted by Spain; the defence of duress â€Å"fails to recognise the reality that one will not need to be subjected to a specific type or level of threat for one’s will to be overborne.†[2] Furthermore, it is also important that the crime is not disproportionate to the threat in order for this defence to prove successful. This will prevent an abuse of the defence from occurring as individuals will not be able to take advantage of the defen ce in all circumstances. An example of this can be seen in relation to murder where the defence of duress is not generally accepted by the Courts. This is because, it is difficult to persuade the Court that a person has been forced or compelled into committing a crime when the harm that has been caused, is greater than the harm that has been threated. In deciding whether a defendant can use this defence, nonetheless, the Courts will have to use the proportionality test, which is both subjective and objective. In R v Howe[3] it was held that a jury should consider whether; a) the defendant acted in this way because he honestly believed that his life was in immediate danger; and b) a reasonable person of the same characteristics of the defendant would have acted in the same way. Here, it was, nonetheless, found that duress could not be a defence to murder. This decision has been the subject of much controversy over the years with conflicting views as to whether the defence of duress should in fact apply to mur der.[4] On the one hand, it is believed by Shankland that duress should serve as a valid defence to murder on the basis that a murder which has been committed as a result of duress should be distinguished from a murder that was pre-meditated.[5] On the other hand, it was said by Toczek that defendants should not be able to rely upon the duress defence for murder as this could not be deemed a ‘reasonable’ belief as required by the Court in Howe.[6] Accordingly, it would be difficult to establish that a person’s belief to commit murder was ‘reasonable’ on the basis that they were subjected to duress. The Court in the more recent case of R v Hasan[7] agreed with the Howe decision and made it even more difficult for the defence of duress to be successfully raised in all criminal cases. Here, it was argued that rather than merely finding that the defendant had a ‘reasonable’ belief, it must be shown that they had an ‘actual’ belief in the efficacy of the threat which compelled the defendant to commit the act. Arguably, it became apparent from this decision that rather than defendants demonstrating that they had a reasonable belief, they are now required to show that the reasonable belief was also a genuine one. The Law Commission have also expressed their concerns as to whether duress should apply to murder and have considered including duress as a partial defence to murder.[8] This would mean that first degree murder could be reduced to second degree murder, whilst second degree murder could be reduced to manslaughter. Whilst this would provide some protection to those individuals who have genuinely feared for their own or families life in committing the crime, it would prevent the scope being broadened too far. Accordingly, it has been said that moral involuntariness should be excused and that regardless as to what crime the defendant had committed, duress should be capable of being used as a defence.[9] Hence, it is said that the defendants fear or lack of courage should be given due c onsideration as these are central to the rational of the defendant. Conclusion Overall, it is evident that there are mixed opinions as to whether duress should be used as a defence to murder, yet whether this would broaden the scope too far is likely. This is because the defence would most likely be open to abuse if it could be used in circumstances such as this. Individuals would be capable of demonstrating that they had been subjected to duress in order to escape criminal liability for murder. This would be unjust in many situations as it cannot be said that the life of a human being is proportionate to a threat that has been made. Nevertheless, in order to ensure that complete liability is not imposed upon defendants in circumstances where they genuinely feared for their life, it could be said that duress should be used as a partial defence to murder. This would prevent defendants from completely escaping liability, yet it would provide the Courts with some leeway when considering certain cases that would require a defence, such as domestic violence victims. Bibliography Books E Spain., The Role of Emotions in Criminal Law Defences: Duress, Necessity and Lesser Evils, (Cambridge University Press, 2011). The Law Commission., Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide: Project 6 of the Ninth Programme of Law Reform; Homicide, (The Stationary Office, 2006). Journals G Williams., ‘Necessity: Duress of Circumstances or Moral Involuntariness?’ Common Law World Review, Volume 43, Issue 1, 1. L Toczek., ‘A Case of Duress’ The New Law Journal, Volume 155, Issue 7173, 612. M Sorarajah., ‘Duress and Murder in Commonwealth Criminal Law’ (1981) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Volume 30, No 3, 660-661. R Shankland., ‘Duress and the Underlying Felony’ (2009) Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Volume 99, Issue 1227. Cases R v Hasan [2005] UKHL 22 R v Howe [1987] 1 AC 417

Asthma in Children Essay

Table of Contents Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 Overview †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 What is Asthma †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 What are the signs and symptoms of asthma? .. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 What can make asthma symptoms worse? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 What is the treatment for asthma? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 Peak flow and its importance †¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 Asthma Action Plan †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 Patient Information Leaflet †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13Introduction â€Å"Asthma can affect anyone, any age, anywhere, but it is particularly common among children. Nowadays asthma affects one in five households in the United Kingdom, and i t is increasingly common. So how do you recognize the condition and minimize the impact on you, your child and your family? â€Å"(Barlow 2007). Often times parents of children with asthma are not given much information on what to do with their child after discharge from the Emergency department especially in patients who are newly diagnosed with asthma.This results in them bringing back their child even though the asthma attack is mild due to parents/carers knowledge about asthma or on home care is limited. Recent developments in the management of chronic illnesses such as asthma offer many possibilities for optimal control, but parents/main carers of children with asthma need to take on responsibilities for self-care. This paper reflects an informative approach on paediatric asthma. The aim is to give information about asthma, to give a brief definition, explain the symptoms of asthma, what the treatments are, what exacerbates the symptoms, and what to do if an asthma attack occu rs.The better the parent / carer and the child understand asthma and its treatment the better they will be able to manage and control it. It will also set out why a patient information leaflet should be introduced to help patients and carers to better manage symptoms at home and help reduce hospital attendances. Overview Whilst working in a busy north London Accident and Emergency ( A&E ) department It has been noted that when children attend with asthma they are discharged from the Department with no further information or support with regards to home care, especially the ones who are newly diagnosed.What happens often is that the parents are given the medications by the nurse without even explaining what to do next or what to watch out for with regards to their childs asthma because the nurse has limited time due to the fact that the department is often busy and there is no time to sit down and chat with the parents prior to discharge. After collaborating with the peadiatric secti on of the department a need has been identified for giving information to parents / carers about asthma in children to help reduce / prevent A&E attendances and help children be cared for at home by means of their parents and general practitioners(GP).Through writing an action plan I have identified what areas of information was needed to be covered in the information leaflet, these being: What is asthma? What are the signs and symptoms? What can make asthma symptoms worse? What is the treatment for asthma? What is a peakflow and its importance in managing the child’s asthma? What to do when an asthma attack occurs? An action plan after discharge from the department Useful contact numbers and website address’ What is asthma? At work I have encountered parents who have limited knowledge about asthma.It is a key issue for parents/ carers to know what asthma is In the leaflet, I have briefly mentioned the definition of asthma as derived by the World Heatlh Organization. T he World Health Organization defines asthma as a condition that affects the airways, it is due to the inflammation of the air passages in the lungs and affects the sensitivity of the nerve endings in the airways so they become easily irritated. in an attack, the lining of the passages swell causing the airways to narrow and reducing the flow of air in and out of the lungs. (World Health Organization 2006)The leaflet also contains what signs and symptoms to look out for prior to an asthma attack. Basing from my own experience growing up with my youngest brother who suffered from asthma, I can remember my parents panic as soon my brother developed cough with mild shortness of breath which often times becomes a trip to the nearest hospital. What are the signs and symptoms? The information leaflet includes what symptoms to look out for when an asthma attack occurs. Out of all the research and reading that I have done, I have come up with four common symptoms.The common symptoms of asthm a, they are cough and wheeze which are constant or intermittent in nature. The child may also become breathless, and develop a feeling of chest tightness. the severity of symptoms differ from child to child – from mild to severe. The leaflet serves as a guide in what to do when these symptoms occur. What can make asthma symptoms worse? A part of the information leaflet is about what makes the symptoms of asthma worse. What factors can cause the exacerbation of asthma or â€Å" trigger factors â€Å" .According to the American Lung Foundation, â€Å" the cause of asthma is not fully understood, but it is thought that it may be a combination of genetic and environmental factors, that asthma attacks are often triggered by certain conditions or stimuli. † ( American Lung Association 2007 ). The common triggers of asthma are exercise, infections, allergy, irritants, weather and emotions. â€Å"Exercise induced asthma (EIA) affects about 40-90% of children with asthma, an d occurs when a child's asthma is triggered by exercise or physical activities. Symptoms f coughing, wheezing, chest pain and difficulty breathing usually begin a few minutes after starting the activity and worsen over the next 5-10 minutes. Symptoms usually continue for about 20-30 minutes. â€Å" ( keepkidshealthy. com 2008 ) â€Å"Severe episodes of asthma are often triggered by respiratory tract infections including flu. Research shows that these infections are most frequently caused by virus more than bacteria. Bronchodilator medication, sufficient hydration and steroids (if indicated) are needed to control an asthma attack caused by viral infections.Allergies can trigger an asthma attack in children with asthma. † ( American Lung Association 2007 ). Allergies can trigger an asthma attack in children with asthma. â€Å"Histamine is released during an allergic reaction causing mucous to be excessively produced, the lining of the airway becomes swollen then muscle contra ction in the airway thus leading to an asthma attack. Allergens associated with asthma are common things like dust mites, feathers, moulds, pets, insects, pollens and ingested food such as egg, soy milk, etc.These causative agents can cause minimal reactions sometimes which are of no obvious consequence but daily exposure to the allergens can cause in gradual worsening of asthma. † (American Lung Association 2007 ). Irritants such as air pollution, cigarette smoke, fumes, chemicals and strong odours can irritate the respiratory system causing reactions such as cough, wheeze and mucous secretions. â€Å"Weather or climatic conditions can trigger an asthma attack; it basically affects outdoor inhalant allergens (pollens and moulds).On a windy day more allergens will be scattered in the air, while a heavy rainfall will wash the air clean of allergens but on the other hand, a light rain might wash out pollen, but actually increase mold concentration† (American Lung Associat ion 2007 ). â€Å"Emotional factors are not the cause of asthma, though emotional stress can infrequently trigger asthma† ( American Lung Association ). A child’s asthma might only be noticeable after crying, laughing or yelling in response to an emotional situation. These normal emotional responses involve deep breathing which in turn can trigger asthma.Emotional stress itself like anxiety, anger or frustration can also trigger asthma, but the asthmatic condition precedes the emotional stress. Emotions are associated with asthma for another reason, many children with asthma suffer from severe anxiety during an episode as a result of suffocation caused by the asthma attack. The anxiety and panic can then produce rapid breathing or hyperventilation, which worsens the asthma condition. The panic and anxiety should be controlled as much as possible; the parent should remain calm, encourage the child to relax and breathe easily and give appropriate medications. The aim is to control the asthma with the appropriate treatment, and when the asthma is well controlled the emotional stress level will be reduced† ( American Lung Association 2007 ). It is an important part of the care of asthma for the parents / carers to know what these factors are, knowing these triggers can help minimize an asthma attack, though some are unavoidable like weather or the fact that a child tends to be more active, the aim of management of the child’s asthma is to enable the child to live a normal life by teaching the parents / carers to recognize their own triggers as avoidance will prevent symptoms from occurring.A part of the information leaflet enumerates the most common triggers with given examples that can act as a stimulus to set off an asthma attack. What is the treatment for asthma? â€Å"There is no cure for asthma, although it can always be controlled† ( World Health Organization 2006 ). â€Å" For most children, asthma is a condition that can be controlled by inhaled medication at home. Continuity and stability of treatment is important. † (Barlow 2007 ) The devised information leaflet enumerates and briefly defines the medications for asthma.It is quite important for the parents / carers to know what the medications are, what are they for, when to use them, and how to use them properly. Hopefully, the literature will help parents / carers to understand asthma medications, for it is worth of consideration that asthma medications must be taken properly. This helps in the care of the child’s disease. Together with the Asthma Action Plan, an appropriate assessment of the child’s symptoms and administering the proper asthma medication at the right time helps in the control of the disease at home.The primary goal for the treatment of the child’s asthma is to achieve the greatest possible control over the disease by reducing exacerbations, and limiting symptoms in order to optimize the quality of lif e of the child. â€Å" the potential for limitation of normal living is immediately apparent, but the actuality is related to a patient’ ability and willingness, to adhere to, and the nature of, a health professional’s recommended regimen† Christie et. al ( 1993 ). Peak flow and its importancePeak flow has it’s place in the care and management of asthma. The information leaflet briefly defines what is peak flow and justify why it should be monitored. The literature emphasizes that in managing asthma in children, parents are encouraged to obtain their child’s peak flow rate for measuring the peak flow helps in monitoring their asthma. The correct technique in obtaining the peak flow should also be reiterated for a false reading can greatly affect the management.However, in children who are under five years it is unreliable due to the fact that their ability to use the peak flow meter properly is doubtful, therefore it should only be attempted in chi ldren who have formerly and regularly used the peak flow devise. A criteria in the Asthma Action Plan is to measure the child’s peak flow rate for it helps to determine the severity of the episode, it helps decide when to use the prescribed asthma medications, and decide when to seek emergency care. Asthma Action PlanIn managing the child’s asthma, it is important to know what symptoms to look out for, what medicines to take, how much and when to take them, all of this should be recorded in the Asthma Action Plan. Prior to discharge from the emergency department, the Asthma Action Plan together with the information leaflet is given to the parents/ carers to use at home to act as a guide in managing an attack of their child’s asthma. It contains the symptoms to look out for and what to do if they occur.It also acts as a tool for the parents and their doctors to monitor the child’s asthma, prior to discharge from the Emergency Department the doctor and the Peadiatric nurse should have completed and discussed the form to the parent. Patient Information leaflet In the current political climate of patient autonomy, patient information leaflets can aid patients, parents and carers to achieve this autonomy. Research has shown that patients may forget half of what they have been told within five minutes of a medical consultation and retain only twenty per cent of the information conveyed to them. â€Å"Providing patients and families ith written information may reduce anxiety, improve use of preventative or self care measures, increase adherence to therapy, prevent communication problems between health care providers and patients and lead to more appropriate and effective use of healthcare services† (Moult et al, 2004). The importance of written patient information has been recognized by the department of Health and the NHS. The NHS Plan states that patient information is an integral part of the patient journey. The Centre for Health Information Quality identifies three key attributes of quality health care information materials: a. he information should be clearly communicated; b. be evidence based; and c. involve patients in the development of the materials (Centre for Health Information Quality in Moult et al, 2004). Research has exposed problems with the readability and usability of a wide range of patient information leaflets (PILS) on diverse matters. The majority of PILs, regardless of their subject, require relatively high reading skills that may not exist in a large proportion of their target population (Zorn & Ratzan, 2000 in Gal & Prigat, 2005).In 2002, the Department of Health published the ‘Tool kit for providing patient information which provides detailed guidelines for writing and designing health care information. The toolkit includes guidelines in the form of ‘points to consider’ and checklists for presentation of various types of information. Readability is often mentioned a s a measure of the quality of written health care information an several scales have been deployed to evaluate the reading level of written information and several scales have been developed to evaluate the reading level of written information. Spadero, 1983). Moult et al. (2004), explains that the lower the reading level, the more likely that the information can be read and understood by a large proportion of the public. Summary The purpose of this essay is to discuss the need which has been identified and to implement change in the peadiatric area in the Emergency Department ( ED ) with regards to patient information about asthma in children. â€Å"The appropriate selection of medications is only one aspect for the provision of a comprehensive approach to all aspects of managing asthma.In particular, parents / carers need education, support and guidance, on how to manage their child’s condition† ( National Institute for Clinical Excellence 2007 ) I have accessed many online web sites and read articles to see what information was available to combine together to produce such information leaflet. The intention of the devised information leaflet is to give information to parents / carers about asthma in children to help reduce or hopefully prevent ED attendances and help children with asthma be cared for at home by means of their parents and GPs. Technological and pharmaceutical developments make feasible the more effective control of chronic conditions, but clinician’s perception of optimal management may result in patients carrying increased responsibilities for maintenance of their physical well – being that can compromise the quality of their daily life† ( Christie et. al. 1993 ), hopefully the information leaflet can facilitate and provide advice, as a part in the holistic approach in managing the child’s asthma at home when the child is discharged from the Emergency department.The information leaflet can also be ut ilized as useful tool to teach junior staff in the Emergency Department. A reading material for the newly qualified staff members to read and use to further enhance their nursing knowledge about asthma, that it can aid the nurse as guidance in their initial assessment and help in anticipating the needs of a child who presents in the Emergency Department with asthma.Hopefully in the future, the information leaflet can be used as a useful tool for health promotion which can be utilized by other members of the health care setting such as health visitors, school nurses, and others in the community settings. Reference: American Lung Association (2007): childhood Asthma Overview http://www. lungusa. org/site/pp. asp? c=dvLUK9O0E=22782. [accessed Dec 2007] Barlow(2007)http://www. childrenfirst. nhs. uk/families/features/illnesses/managing_childhood_asthma. html [accessed Jan 2008] Christie et. l (1993)Development of child – centered disease – specific Questionares for living with asthma , Psychosomatic medicine 55:541 – 548 Department of Health. ( 2002 ) Toolkit for Producing Patient Information. London: HMSO, 2002. London: Department of Health Gal, I & Ayelet Prigat (2005) Why organizations continue to create patient information leaflets with readability and usability problems: an exploratory study: Health Education Research Vol. 20 no. 4 pp485 – 493. Keep Kids Healthy (2007) :Exercise Induced Athma http://www. keepkidshealthy. com/asthma/exercise_induced_asthma. html [accessed Dec 2007]Moult, B. et al (2004) Ensuring Quality Information for Patients: development and preliminary validation of a new instrument to improve the quality of written care information: Health Expectation Vol 7 pp165 – 175. National Institute for Clinical Excellence:Inhaler devices for routine treatment of chronic asthma in older children, ;www. nice. org. uk [ accessed Dec 2007 ] Spadero, DC (1983) Assessing readability of patient information materials. Pae diatric Nursing, Vol 9 pp274 – 278. WorldHealthOrganization:Asthma in children; http://www. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/index. htm. [accessed Jan 2008]

George Orwell s Animal Farm - 1957 Words

Although George Orwell’s Animal Farm was created in order to mimic individuals as well as occurrences that took place during the Russian Revolution period, it is still possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the text without a past knowledge of history through the exploitation of human nature’s imperfections. Following the publishment of his novel, Orwell confirmed that his goal in writing this fable was to expose the wrongdoing of the Soviet Union as well as the treachery of the true ideas of the Revolution. Nonetheless, there have been several other examples of events such as the French Revolution that can effortlessly be contrasted against components of the allegory. However, we need not to dig no deeper than to the†¦show more content†¦Orwell’s character of Old Major depicts V. I. Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party that gained control during the Revolution (CliffNotes. 2013). In his speech, it becomes apparent that Old Major has an uncomp romising hatred for humans – for he is quoted saying, â€Å"Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy† (page 6) – this mirrors how Lenin was inflexible with his views. An associate of Lenin’s was Leon Trotsky; his stand-in in Animal Farm is Snowball (SMMC PowerPoint. 2014.). Snowball’s hopes for the windmill reflect Trotsky’s intellectual demeanour as well as his ideas of how to put Karl Marx’s theory of Communism into action. Eventually, Trotsky was expelled from the Soviet Union and executed by Joseph Stalin, just like Snowball was banished from the farm by Napoleon (page 35) – George Orwell’s counterpart for Stalin. Napoleon’s dogs are a reference to Joseph Stalin’s secret police that he used to exterminate anyone who was seen as a threat to him. Stalin also used large amounts of propaganda – Squealer represents this in the novel (SMMC PowerPoint. 2014). The Battle of the Cowshed (page 26-27) mimics the Civil War that arose after the 1917 Revolution. Frederick Pilkington depicts Adolf Hitler, who established an